Legislation

India had 91 constitutional amendments by early 2004. Nine amendments were passed 2004–2014; nine more between 2014–2024 (98th–106th). Key post-2014 amendments: 101st (GST, 2016), 102nd (OBC National Commission, 2018), 103rd (10% EWS reservation, 2019), 104th (SC/ST reservation extension, 2020), 106th (Women's Reservation — 33% seats in Lok Sabha & state assemblies, 2023, operative post-delimitation). The amendment rate (~1.2 per year) has been broadly consistent across different governments. Source ↗

GST (Goods and Services Tax, effective 1 July 2017) replaced 17 indirect taxes, creating India's largest tax reform since independence. Active registrations grew from 0 at launch to 148 lakh (14.8 million) by March 2024. GST has formalised the supply chain — businesses below ₹40 lakh turnover threshold are exempt. E-way bills (~100 crore/year), e-invoicing, and GSTN analytics have improved compliance and reduced tax evasion. Source ↗

The Insolvency & Bankruptcy Code (IBC, 2016) replaced multiple overlapping insolvency laws and established a 330-day time-bound resolution process. As of March 2024: 1,067 cases resolved under CIRP with realisation of ₹3.16 lakh crore for creditors (recovery rate ~32% of admitted claims). An additional 27,000+ cases settled before formal CIRP, reflecting the law's deterrent effect. Delays remain: average resolution time has exceeded 600 days vs the 270-day statutory limit; NCLT capacity and legal challenges are bottlenecks. Source ↗

The 4 Labour Codes (Wages 2019; Industrial Relations, Social Security, Occupational Safety 2020) consolidate 29 existing central labour laws. Aimed at simplifying compliance and extending social security to informal workers. As of mid-2025, states have not fully notified the rules, delaying implementation. The codes are contested by trade unions for reducing job security protections (fixed-term employment, raised thresholds for retrenchment permission). Coverage of gig and platform workers under Social Security Code is a new positive. Source ↗

Bills passed per full 5-year term of Lok Sabha. The 16th LS (2014–19) had the highest output at 331 bills. The 17th LS (2019–24) passed fewer bills (222) but several were landmark reforms (Labour Codes, DPDP Act, BNS/BNSS criminal law recodification). A declining share of bills was referred to Parliamentary Standing Committees — from ~60% in the 14th LS to ~15% in the 17th LS — reducing independent legislative scrutiny. Source ↗

Productivity = % of scheduled sitting time spent on legislative business vs disruption/adjournments. The 15th LS (2009–14) was the least productive at 61% — marked by high-profile scam allegations and frequent walkouts. The 16th LS peaked at 85%. The 17th LS (74%) had high Budget session productivity (~97%) but lower monsoon/winter session performance. PRS notes that fewer bills are now referred to standing committees — faster passage but reduced scrutiny. Source ↗

At dissolution of the 17th Lok Sabha (June 2024), all pending bills lapsed as per constitutional convention. The 16th Lok Sabha (2014-19) had 330+ bills pass with 181 pending at dissolution. The 17th LS introduced the practice of referring fewer bills to committees before passage — reducing delays but also scrutiny. Major pending legislation as of 2024: Personal Data Protection Bill (withdrawn 2022, successor DPDP Act passed 2023), EWS quota challenges in Supreme Court (resolved 2022). Source ↗

Real Estate (Regulation & Development) Act (RERA, 2016) — effective 2017 — mandates registration of all residential projects above 500 sqm or 8 units. 1.3 lakh+ projects and 75,000+ agents registered as of March 2024. State MahaRERA (Maharashtra) is most active. RERA has increased homebuyer protection, project transparency, and developer accountability. Implementation quality varies by state; several states have diluted rules or set up weak appellate tribunals. Source ↗